On Becoming a Leader Essay

The book I chose to review is â€Å"On Becoming a Leader† by Warren Bennis. At the crux of this book is a search to understand how leaders are made. Throughout the book, the author tries to prove through polls and observations, that leaders are not born but are made through a combination of nature and nurture. Leaders who excel tend to have similar characteristics which have been developed by a series of experiences in their lives (these include embracing mistakes, taking risks and learning from adversity). Another idea discussed in the book is that of the role of education in making leaders. Bennis notes a number of qualities and abilities that are common amongst the leaders he interacts with. Some of those are relating well to others, trusting others and in turn being trustworthy, the ability to motivate people and to not give up, inspiration and competence in the job. However, he claims that a major problem in business & leadership is the â€Å"societal disease of our time† (as said by Norman Lear to him) – short term thinking. He highlights throughout the book that this form of thinking is not beneficial to organizations and that a good leader should be able to look further and not give the short term too much importance. At one point he claims that short term thinking is what kills one of the most important attributes a leader must have – innovation. The author mentions that leaders are important to an organization since they are of paramount importance to the operational performance, stability and integrity of the organization. To this end, Warren Bennis presents in a systematic manner various attributes that are required of a leader to be able to perform well. The first attribute discussed is the ability to â€Å"Master the context†. In this chapter, the author discusses the fact that a leader must be able to understand the reasons and outcomes of different situations. Only once he has managed this, will he be able to act in the best possible way for his organization. This is in line with what we have learned throughout our course regarding improving one’s self-awareness as well as the 4 perspectives of organizational effectiveness. A leader must be able to understand the context of work and respond by being aware that he needs to look after different perspectives of people and systems related to the organization. The second thing discussed is â€Å"understanding the basics†, which is quite similar to mastering the context. In this, Warren Bennis explains that leaders need to understand the underlying concepts at work before making decisions. He lists a series of attributes that can be found in most leaders including self-knowledge, passion, vision and trust. He argues that most of the leaders are not born with these attributes but life experiences and a desire to lead people enables them to develop a good understanding of this. Their drive to acquire and learn are much higher than on average and they actively pursue these drives while taking risks and placing lesser importance on their drive for safety. In this he also discusses the difference between managing people and leading them. We have gone through various topics related directly to this effect in class. According to me, one of the strongest drives an individual has is the drive to safety. An individual would be much more comfortable if they can trust their leader. The ability to understand the thought process of their leader and their belief/trust in him helps shore up their drive for safety. Across cultures, people tend to avoid uncertainty and if a leader is able to, through knowledge and an understanding, provide people with an image of consistency; it goes a long way in settling people and reducing stress. The third lesson is â€Å"knowing yourself†. Warren Bennis argues that in order to lead others, one must fully understand themselves. To be able to trust your decisions/inner feelings is extremely important for leading people and making correct choices. The author goes on to highlight 4 lessons that enable an individual to understand themselves. They are â€Å"you are your own best teacher†, â€Å"accept responsibility†, â€Å"you can learn anything you want to learn† and â€Å"true understanding comes from reflecting on your own experience†. All these lessons are at the core of organizational behavior as we have learnt. These 4 lessons can apply even to organizations as well as being useful for individuals. Self-concept is an important part of an individual’s make up and to feed that we must be able to reflect on our past experiences to learn from them. Social learning, learning through reinforcement and learning through experience are discussed as important factors of learning in organizations in our course. I believe this same applies to individuals as they are able to develop their social identity and self-concept through these lessons. Next, the author discusses â€Å"Knowing the world†. This takes a similar route to the previous subject of knowing yourself, while developing a greater scope to the understanding. Cultural understanding is an extremely important attribute in a leader. In an increasingly diverse workforce coupled with increasing globalization, a leader must have the ability to and desire to understand various cultures and behaviors. Values and behavior are very different for different cultures, and a lot of organizations have failed due to the incompatible understanding of their leaders. The HP-Compaq merger was a major case where while it was beneficial financially and operationally for the companies to merge, their leaders were not able to fully adapt the two company’s cultures properly, causing the merger to have not performed anywhere near expectations. One point that I found particularly interesting and felt that was very important was the need for a person to find a mentor who can help them enhance and shape their cultural understanding. The social learning aspect discusses similar concepts, where a person learns from someone whom they aspire to be. Being able to find a mentor who has an in depth understanding of cultures, or at least has a desire to learn cultural differences can help an individual become a more complete leader. The next thought discussed by the author is â€Å"Operating on instinct†. This discussion focuses on the fact that a good leader should be able to believe in himself and should be able to take decisions from his gut feeling. More often than not a leader and even individuals will have to make decisions without knowing all the details they would like to know. The presence of incomplete information should not make the leader less likely to make a decision. A good leader will have developed enough self-awareness and through self-evaluation and verification be able to rely on his instinct to make the right choice. This enables the leader to be able to quickly and decisively contemplate and decide issues. The next discussion is based on †Deploying yourself†. In this the author talks about the fact that a successful leader is a person who is willing to take on challenges even though he might have failed in earlier challenges. The drive to learn and acquire are, I feel, major contributors to this topic. A good leader will be able to reflect on his past experiences and learn from them; and this gives them confidence to continually drive for newer challenges and tasks. Another topic discussed is â€Å"Moving through chaos†. In this chapter, Warren Bennis describes the difference between all individuals and leaders. He points out that everyone faces problems and issues in their career, but that leaders analyze these problems and tend to learn from these. Conflict resolution can take many forms through third-party conflict resolution or negotiation. Leaders reflect on their conflicts and develop an understanding of how to overcome those challenges. â€Å"Getting people on your side† is the next topic covered. The main point of this discussion, and a very important learning for me personally, is the ability of the leader to be trustworthy. To be trusted, a leader must display consistency in his actions, congruity – meaning what they say, reliable to their followers and have a strong integrity. This once again gravitates towards the drive for safety individuals have. To be lead by someone, an individual must trust them to act on their behalf and be able to predict to a certain extent what their leaders will do for them. The concept of romanticizing leadership is down to this ability of leaders. If a leader is able to bring their employees/followers on their side, the leader’s ability to work through tasks and challenges is increased. Even mistakes made by them will be viewed in a positive light, enabling them to continue taking risks. â€Å"Organizations can help – or hinder† is the next topic that is discussed. This focuses on the fact different organizations will have different expectations from their leaders. The culture at an organization will dictate how well a leader will be able to lead the organization. A good leader will be able to understand the context of the organization and will try to devise strategies he can implement to make changes. The author also mentions that the leader should try and develop organizational characteristics that are in line with their culture. This also transposes into the last discussion of â€Å"Forging the future†. The impediments faced by leaders in an organization can be very hard, but a good leader will be able to develop his own culture and characteristics to move the organization forward. One major issue I had with this book was that while the author continually refers to short term thinking as a â€Å"societal disease†; he himself to a certain extent subscribes to that notion. His interaction with the leaders seems comparatively very short term. Throughout the statements made in the book, it felt that the interviews were more about successful past rather than forward looking. I understand that one of the major attributes is to learn from experiences but the I’d prefer if the author also focused equally on the leader’s thoughts about the future. Secondly I felt that there was quite a bit of political commentary in the book. I knew that it was going to have some after reading the reviews while selecting the book, but the political leadership aspect seemed to be a comparatively one sided. I feel that the author could have refrained from making this political and focused instead on the corporate leadership aspect.

Medical Immunology

MEDICAL IMMUNOLOGY & SEROLOGY Terence L. Eday, RMT, MT(ASCPi), MPH College of Medical Technology / Medical Laboratory Science University of Perpetual Help System DALTA Historical Perspective †¢ 1773, Voltaire reported on an ancient Chinese custom where dried and powdered small pox scabs were inhaled †¢ 1798, Edward Anthony Jenner, Smallpox vaccination †¢ 1862, Ernst Haekel, Recognition of phagocytosis 1877, Paul Erlich, recognition of mast cells Historical Perspective †¢ 1879, Louis Pasteur, Attennuated chicken cholera vaccine development †¢ 1883, Ellie Metchnikoff developed the cellular theory of immunity through phagocytosis; phagocytic theory; cellular theory of vaccination †¢ 1885, Pasteur discovered therapeutic vaccination; first report of live â€Å"attenuated† vaccine for rabies Historical Perspective 1888, Pierre Roux & Alexander Yersin, Bacterial toxins (Yersinia pestis) †¢ 1888, George Nuttall, Bactericidal action of blood †¢ 1 890, Emil von Behring and Kitasata introduced passive immunization into modern medicine; humoral theory of immunity †¢ 1891, Robert Koch demonstrated the cutaneous (delayed-type) hypersensitivity †¢ 1894, Richard Pfeiffer, Bacteriolysis Historical Perspective (1 of 6 ) 1895, Jules Bordet, Complement and antibody activity in bacteriolysis †¢ 1900, Paul Ehrlich, responsible for the antibody formation theory †¢ 1901, Karl Landsteiner, A, B, and O †¢ 1901-8, Carl Jensen & Leo Loeb, Transplantable tumors †¢ 1902, Paul Portier & Charles Richet, Anaphylaxis Historical Perspective (1 of 6 ) †¢ 1903, Nicolas Maurice Arthus, discovered the Arthus reaction of intermediate hypersensitivity †¢ 1903, Almroth Wright and Stewart Douglas observed the humoral component, opsonin †¢ 1906, Clemens von Pirquet, coined the word allergy †¢ 1907, Svante Arrhenius, coined the term immunochemistryHistorical Perspective †¢ 1910, Emil von Dungern, & Ludwik Hirszfeld, Inheritance of ABO blood groups †¢ 1910, Peyton Rous, Viral immunology theory †¢ 1914, Clarence Little, Genetics theory of tumor transplantation †¢ 1915-20, Leonll Strong & Clarence Little, Inbred mouse strains Historical Perspective †¢ 1917, Karl Landsteiner, Haptens †¢ 1921, Carl Prausnitz & Heinz Kustner, Cutaneous reactions †¢ 1924, L. Aschoff, Reticuloendothelial system †¢ 1926, Loyd Felton & GH Bailey, Isolation of pure antibody preparation †¢ 1938, John Marrack, Antigen-antibody binding hypothesis Historical Perspective 1936, Peter Gorer, Identification of the H2 antigen in mice †¢ 1940, Karl Landsteiner & Alexander Weiner, Identification of the Rh Antigens †¢ 1941, Albert Coons, Immunofluorescence technique †¢ 1942, Jules Freund & Katherine McDermott, Adjuvants †¢ 1942, Karl Landsteiner & Merill Chase, Cellular transfer of sensitivity in guinea pigs (anaphylaxis) Historical Perspective †¢ 1944, Peter Medwar, Immunological hypothesis of allograft rejection †¢ 1948, Astrid Fagraeus, Demonstration of antibody production in plasma B cells †¢ 1948, George Snell, Congenic mouse lines †¢ 1949, Macfarlane Burnet & Frank Fenner, Immunological tolerance hypothesisHistorical Perspective †¢ 1950, Richard Gershon and K Kondo, Discovery of supressor T cells †¢ 1952, Ogden and Bruton, discovery of agammaglobulinemia (antibody immunodeficiency) †¢ 1953, Morton Simonsen and WJ Dempster, Graft-versus-host reaction †¢ 1953, James Riley & Geoffrey West, Discovery of histamine in mast cells Historical Perspective †¢ 1953, Rupert Billingham, Leslie Brent, Peter Medwar, & Milan Hasek, Immunological tolerance hypothesis †¢ 1955-1959, Niels Jerne, David Talmage, Macfarlane Burnet, Clonal Selection Theory †¢ 1957, Ernest Witebsky et all. Induction of autoimmunity in animals †¢ 1957, Alik Isaacs & Jean Lindemann, Discovery of interferon (cytokine) Hi storical Perspective †¢ 1958-62, Jean Dausset et al. , Human leukocyte antigens †¢ 1959-62, Rodney Porter et al. , Discovery of antibody structure †¢ 1959, James Gowans, Lympocyte circulation †¢ 1961-62, Jaques Miller et al. , Discovery of thymus involvement in cellular immunity †¢ 1961-62, Noel Warner et al. , Disctinction of cellular and humoral immune response Historical Perspective †¢ 1963, Jacques Oudin et al. Antibody isotypes †¢ 1964-68, Anthony Davis et al. , T and B cell cooperation in immune response †¢ 1965, Thomas Tomasi et al. , Secretory immunoglobulin antibodies †¢ 1967, Kimishige Ishizaka et al. , Identification of IgE as the reaginic antibody Historical Perspective †¢ 1971, Donald Bailey, Recombinant inbred mouse strains †¢ 1972, Gerald M. Edelman & Rodney Porter, Identification of antibody molecule †¢ 1974, Rolf Zinkernagel & Peter Doherty, MHC restriction †¢ 1975, Kohler and Milstein, First monoclona l antibodies used in genetic analysisHistorical Perspective †¢ 1984, Robert Good, Failed treatment of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID, David the bubble boy) by bone marrow grafting †¢ 1985, Tonegawa, Hood et al. , Identification of immunoglobulin genes †¢ 1985-1987, Leroy Hood et al. , Identification of genes for the T cell receptor †¢ 1986, Monoclonal hepatitis B vaccine Historical Perspective †¢ 1986, Mosmann, Th1 versus Th2 model of T-helper-cell function †¢ 1990, Yamamoto et al. Molecular differences between the genes for blood groups O and A and between those for A and B †¢ 1990, NIH team, Gene therapy for SCID using cultured T cells †¢ 1993, NIH team, Treatment of SCID using genetically altered umbilical cord cells Historical Perspective †¢ 1996-1998, Identification of toll-like receptors †¢ 2001, FOXP3, the gene directing regulatory-T-cell development †¢ 2005, Frazer, Development of human papilloma-virus vaccine Th e IMMUNE SYTEM What is Immunology? †¢ Study of the molecules, cells, organs, and systems responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign (nonself) material †¢ †¦ ow body components respond and interact †¢ †¦desirable and undesirable consequences of immune interactions †¢ †¦ways in which the immune system can be advantageously manipulated to protect against or treat disease What is Immunity? †¢ Latin word â€Å"immunitas†, freedom from †¢ It refers to all mechanisms used by the body as protection against environmental agents that are foreign to the body. †¢ Can be either natural (innate or inborn) or acquired (adaptive) Function of the Immune System †¢ Recognize â€Å"self† from â€Å"nonself† †¢ Defend the body against nonself Physiologic function is to prevent infection and to eradicate established infections (sterilizing immunity) Key Characteristics of the Immune System †¢ Innate immunit y †¢ Primary response †¢ Secondary response and immunologic memory †¢ Immune response is highly specific †¢ Immune system is tolerant of self-antigens †¢ Immune responses against self-antigens can result in autoimmune diseases †¢ Immune responses against infectious agents do not always lead to elimination of the pathogen (HIV/AIDS) Major Principles of Immunity (immune response): Elimination of many microbial agents through the nonspecific protective mechanisms of the innate immune system. †¢ Cues from the innate immune system inform the cells of the adaptive immune system as to whether it is appropriate to make a response and what type of response to make. Major Principles of Immunity (immune response): †¢ Cells of the adaptive immune system display exquisitely specific recognition of foreign antigens and mobilize potent mechanisms for elimination of microbes bearing such antigens. The immune system displays memory of its previous responses. à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Tolerance of self-antigens. Cells of the Immune System †¢ Lymphocytes – occupy the central stage; determines the specificity of immunity †¢ Dendritic cells (DCs) & Langerhan cells †¢ Monocyte/macrophages †¢ Natural killer (NK) cells †¢ Neutrophils †¢ Mast cells & Basophils †¢ Eosinophils †¢ Epithelial and stromal cells – provides anatomic environment (secretion of critical factors that regulate migration, growth and homeostasis) Lymphoid Tissues and Organs Primary Lymphoid Organs Sites where pre-B and pre-T lymphocytes mature into naive T and B cells in the absence of foreign antigen; †¢ Fetal Liver, Adult bone marrow, and thymus The INNATE IMMUNE SYTEM INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM †¢ relies on germ line-encoded receptors to detect a limited set of microbial structures that are uniquely associated with microbial infection †¢ not a function of a single defined physiologic system; rather, it is a product of multiple a nd diverse defense mechanisms Modules of the Innate Immune System †¢ Surface epithelium The phagocyte system – critical for the defense against both intracellular and extracellular bacteria as well as fungal pathogens; aided by opsonins †¢ Acute phase response and complement – variety of secreted proteins that function in the circulation and in tissue fluids; secreted by the hepatocytes in response to the inflammatory cytokines IL1 and IL-6 Modules of the Innate Immune System †¢ Natural killer (NK) cells are specialized in the elimination of infected host cells and in aiding defense against viral and other intracellular infections through production of cytokines(IFN-? ; regulated by type I interferons (IFN-? /? ) †¢ Mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils are specialized in defense against multicellular parasites, such as helminthes; regulated by several cytokines, including IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13 Strategies of Innate Immune Recognition 1. Recog nition of microbial nonself – referred to as pattern recognition, based on the recognition of molecular structures that are unique to microorganisms and not produced by the host 2.Recognition of missing self – based on the recognition of molecules expressed only on normal, uninfected cells of the host Targets of Innate Immune Recognition †¢ PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns) – molecular structures produced by microbial pathogens, but not by the host organism †¢ PRRs (pattern recognition receptors) – receptors of the innate immune system and represents targets of the innate immune system Targets of Innate Immune Recognition Examples of PAMPs include: (1) LPS of gram-negative bacteria (2) LTA of gram-positive bacteria (3) Peptidoglycans (4) Lipoproteins of bacteria (cell wall) (5) Lipoarabinomannan of mycobacteria (6) dsRNA produced by virus during the infection cycle (7) ? -glucans and mannans found in fungal cell wall Receptors of th e Innate Immune System †¢ Broad categories of PRRs: (1) PRRs that signal the presence of infection; expressed on the cell surface or intracellularly Categories of gene products: a. proteins and peptides that have direct antimicrobial effector functions (antimicrobial peptides and lysozyme) b. nflammatory cytokines and chemokines (TNF, IL-1, IL-8) c. gene products that control activation of the adaptive immune response (MHC, CD80/CD86, IL-12) Receptors of the Innate Immune System †¢ Broad categories of PRRs: (2) Phagocytic (or endocytic) PRRs; expressed on the surface of macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells(DCs) (3) Secreted PRRs (mannan-binding lectin and peptidoglycan-recognition proteins Function: a. activate complement b. opsonize microbials cells to facilitate their phagocytosis c. ccessory proteins for PAMP recognition by transmembrane receptors (TLR) Receptors of the Innate Immune System †¢ Toll-like Receptors – comprise a family of type 1 transm embrane receptors characterized by leucine rich repeats (LRRs) in the extracellular portion and an intracellular TIR (Toll/IL-1 receptor) domain; grouped into two classes: (1) TLRs 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are expressed on the plasma membrane and detect bacterial and fungal cell wall components; (2) TLRs 3, 7, and 9 are expressed in endosomal compartments and recognize viral nucleic acidsToll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) †¢ expressed predominantly in the cells of the immune system, including macrophages, DC, neutrophils, mast cells, and B cells †¢ also expressed on endothelial cells, fibroblasts, surface epithelial cells, and muscle cell †¢ Signal transducing receptor for LPS, heat sensitive protein associated with the cell walls of MTB †¢ Together with CD14 shown to mediate responsiveness to the fusion (F) protein of RSVToll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) †¢ Involved in recognition of LTA and peptidoglycan from gram-positive bacteria, bacterial lipoproteins, mycoplasma lipoprot ein, mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan, a phenol-soluble modulin from S. epidermidis, zymosan of yeast cell walls, and lipoglycosylphosphotidylinositol T. cruzi †¢ Also shown to recognize two kinds of atypical LPS: L. interrogans and Porphyromonas gingivitis Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) Receptor for dsRNA †¢ Can mediate responses to poly(IC) †¢ Expressed on DCs, macrophages, and surface epithelial cells, including instestinal epithelium †¢ Also expressed in CD8+ DCs Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) †¢ Involved in viral recognition and both detect nucleic acids together with TLR9 †¢ Recognizes viral ssRNA (derived from RNA viruses); TLR9 (unmethylated DNA derived from DNA viruses) †¢ Expressed primarily on plasmacytoid dendritic cells †¢ Activated by small antiviral compunds, e. g. imiquinoid †¢TLR7-mediated recognition takes place inside the late lysosomes Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) †¢ Involved in the antiviral host defense; especially on r ecognition of DNA viruses (HSV) †¢ Expressed in type-I INF-producing plasmacytoid DCs Phagocytic Receptors †¢ Scavenger receptors – cell-surface glycoproteins that are defined by their ability to bind to modified LDL †¢ Macrophage Mannose Receptor (MR) – type I transmembrane protein expressed primarily in macrophages; involved in phagocytosis of bacterial (MTB, P. eruginosa, K. pneumonia), fungal (S. cerevisae, C. albicans), and protozoan pathogens (P. carinii) Cells of the Innate Immune System †¢ Macrophages – most central and essential functions and have multiple roles in host defense (e. i. â€Å"housekeeping functions†); in red pulp of the spleen, it phagocytose and remove from circulation senescent RBCs †¢ Neutrophils †¢ Mast Cells – best known effectors of allergic response; protective role is by rapid production of TNF-? nd leukotriene B4 (neutrophil recruitement) Cells of the Innate Immune System †¢ Eosino phils – found primarily in the respiratory, intestinal, and genitourinary tracts; contains cationic effector proteins toxic to parasitic worms; poor phagocytes †¢ Dendritic Cells – immature DCs reside in peripheral tissues and are highly active in macropinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis; expresses PRRs and TLRs; have roles in the initiation of adaptive immune response Cells of the Innate Immune System Suface Epithelium – lines the mucosal surfaces of the intestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts provide an important physical barrier The Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System The Major Categories of Antimicrobial Effector Enzymes that hydrolyze components of microbial cell walls Antimicrobial proteins and petides that disrupt the integrity of microbial cell walls †¢ Lysozyme †¢ Chitinases †¢ Phospholipase A2 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ BPI Defensins Cathelicidins Complement Eosinophil cationic protein Mi crobicidal serine proteasesProteins that sequester iron and zinc Enzymes that generate toxic oxygen and nitrogen derivatives †¢ Seprocidins †¢ Lactoferrin †¢ NRAMP †¢ calprotein †¢ Phagocytic oxidase †¢ Nitric oxide synthase †¢ myeloperoxidase The Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System †¢ Lysozyme – a. k. a. muramidase; degrades the peptidoglycan of some gram(+) bacteria; highly concentrated in secretions such as tears and saliva †¢ Chitinases – enzymes that degrade chitin; secreted by activated macrophages and presumably play a role in antifungal defenseThe Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System †¢ Defensins – cationic peptides with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities against gram(+) and gram(-) bacteria, fungi, parasites, and some envelope viruses; kill microorganisms by forming pores in the membranes; divided into ? – and ? defensins †¢ ? -defensins – presynthesize d and stored in granules of neutrophils and Paneth cells of the small intestine †¢ ? -defensins – produced by epithelial cells and not stored in cytoplasmic granulesThe Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System †¢ Cathelicidins – active against gram(+) and gram(-) bacteria and fungi; produced in neutrophils and stored as inactive proproteins in the secondary granules †¢ Serprocedins – comprise a family of cationic serine proteases with antimicrobial activity (neutrophil elastase, proteinase 3, cathepsin G, and azurocidin); exert its antimicrobial activity by either perturbation of microbial membranes or by proteolysisThe Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System †¢ Lactoferrin, NRAMP, and Calprotectin – antimicrobial activities are due to the ability to sequester iron and zinc †¢ Lactoferrin – found in the secondary granules of neutrophils, in epithelial secretions (e. i. breast milk), in the intestinal epitheli um of infants, and in airway fluids; bacteriostatic (iron sequestration) and bacteriocidal (perturbation of microbial membranes) The Effector Mechanisms of the Innate Immune System NRAMP (natural resistance-associated macrophage protein) – integral membrane protein that functions as an ion pump in the phagocytic vacuoles of macrophage and neutrophils †¢ Calprotectin – member of the family of calciumbinding proteins; microbial activity is by chelation and sequestration of zinc ion ACUTE PHASE REACTANTS †¢ Soluble factors which are normal constituents that increase or decrease rapidly as produ †¢ Not a function of a single defined physiologic system; rather, it is a product of multiple and diverse defense mechanisms

Conduct Unbecoming

â€Å"Conduct unbecoming† is a punishment that is only for Commissioned OFFICERS – not for enlisted soldiers. Article 84 is regarding unlawful enlistment†¦ and therefore not applicable to this situation. Article 15 is the article that allows for non-judicial punishment – it is NOT something you can be charged with. Article 91: Insubordinate conduct toward a non-commissioned officer (you failed to obey the order). Article 92: Failure to Obey a Lawful Order (he ordered you to tell the truth, and you didn't). Article 107: False Official Statements (told a lie when asked). Article 134: Disloyal Statements (prejudicial to the good order and discipline) Article 134: False Swearing (you took an oath and then lied) Article 134: Obstructing Justice (you lied to hide wrongdoing) The max punishments you can be hit with are as follows (in the same order!! ) Article 91: BCD, 1 year confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances (willfully disobeying an NCO's order), BCD, 6 month confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances (for showing contempt to the NCO) Article 92: Dishonorable discharge, 2 years confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances (if the situation involved a general order). BCD 6 month confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances (for the failure to tell the NCO the truth). Article 107: 5 years confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances. Article 134 (statements): 3 years confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances. Article 134 (swearing): Dishonorable Discharge, 3 year confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances. Article 134 (obstructing): Dishonorable Discharge, 5 year confinement, forfeiture of all pay and allowances. And it depends entirely upon what it was that you are being accused of lying about and the Commander. If it was important, or really impacted Good Order and Discipline, you'll be charged with the maximum number of charges. If it is bad enough situation to warrant an Article 15 you are going to get hit with a Field Grade Article 15. For this, the max damage is no more than 30 days of correctional custody, 45 days of extra duty, 45 days of restriction (it can be 60 days, but extra duty and restriction must be the same amount), loss of TWO pay grades, and loss of half your pay for two months.

Designing neew product Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Designing neew product - Essay Example Organizations are faced with high intensity of competition within the industry and also from new entrants. There is even competition from the outside players as well. Every business has to innovate to stay ahead in the competitive market. No business can afford to offer the same unchanged product. This will lead to a decrease in sale and profits reduced. Hence new product development has become an indispensable strategy for any organization in order to build a competitive advantage and carry out its operations effectively in the market place. Discussion The advancement in information and communication technology, computes etc., is influencing almost all aspects of the business world, from networking to marketing, research and development. Understanding and effectively utilizing the advancements in this technology are vital for any business if they aspire to continuously grow their business and attract new customers and clients. Technology is transforming the core of innovation. With the help of technology, companies can now test new ideas with unimaginable speed and minimum prices. Online resources help a company to test market its product or service after the initial development, to assess or evaluate the viability of the product and make necessary changes according to customer feedback. Technological advancements have helped companies to launch their innovative initiatives within no time and with least amount they have ever imagined. As information technology becomes cheaper and available to public at large, the competition for continuously growing and developing innovative products and services for the customers is becoming a necessity for companies to thrive. This makes continuous use of advancement in information technology very crucial for companies for constant innovation and growth in the market. There are various ways by which market can be segmented such as demographic segmentation, geographic segmentation, psychographic and behavioural segmentation ( Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2011, p.343). The present generation of young people are tech-savvy. This generation want quick solutions for everything, starting from their daily requirements, likes and preferences, means of pleasure etc. Customers look for products with multiples features or products and devices which are multi-tasking. Considering the present trend of consumers, two products can be targeted. Wrist watch is a common accessory today, which is not only used as a time tracker but has become a status symbol, owing to the continuous developments in the design and features. People, especially college students and young working professionals also carry with them music players such as iPod and other music devices. These people are music lovers and like to listen to music during their free hours such as travelling and lunch and also sometimes during work. Sometimes it becomes tedious to take iPods or music players everywhere they go. They also forget to carry it sometimes, as it i s not a regular accessory like a wristwatch. Looking at this opportunity the new product which has been planned to develop and launch in the market will be an innovative wrist watch with an embedded music system or music player in it. The music system will be equipped with a wireless Bluetooth. The watch will work as a touch screen for changing songs and folders. Wrist Watch with Music: A Brief Overview The new product whi

Write a final piece on your experience on this module (Developing work Essay

Write a final piece on your experience on this module (Developing work and study skills), - Essay Example With the module that I opted for I have been able to excel in my relevant subjects and achieve my goals respectively. I have been able to achieve the skills of auditing as now i know the relevant processes which are involved in the process. Gathering information and interpreting it in such a way that plagiarism does not take a role in it is an important feature of this module which I have learned to excel in. The module also allowed us to work as a group and thus it has developed my communication and group working skills. With different projects and assignments I have learned how to compose a report on the relevant topics. Similarly presentations have also formed an important aspect of this module through which I have learned to gain confidence and reflect on my views, goals and practices. Above all I have learned to manage time because of which I was able to complete all these tasks properly. However completing this module has not been as easy as it seems when telling about the achi evements and this is because of my weaknesses. But on the other hand my strengths have helped me to cope up with these weaknesses so that I can achieve my goal easily. First of all the main strengths that I possess are team working skills because of which I can be able to work as a leader. I can be able to lead a group of individuals to success as I possess the relative communication skills which can satisfy all my group members. Most of all the main thing that I have learned from this course will help me a lot and that is time management. Utilization of time is an important aspect of life, without which one would not be able to divide and utilize time as per his/her priorities. Time management has made me excel in life and I think it would further help me in life. Moreover I also have determination to complete my goals and aims. But as said by Christopher Moore "Nobodys perfect. Well, there was this one guy, but we killed him....". It

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 3

Case study - Essay Example inhibitory or excitatory) and determine the specific behavior of the receptor. There are four NTs important with reference to alcohol effect and dependence, the excitatory NT glutamate, the inhibitory NT GABA (gamma- aminobutyric acid) & the two NTs involved in the reward process: Dopamine and serotonin. In initial exposure, alcohol induces production of dopamine, which onsets the encoding of these incidences as environment linked memories in cortex of brain. It also influences the excitatory and inhibitory NTs which in absence of alcohol, maintain a balance. Under the influence of alcohol, an important subset of glutamate (N-methyl D-aspartate, NMDA) is inhibited, thus causing inhibition of excitatory impulse.The primary effect of alcohol, however is on NT GABA: its inhibitory effect is enhanced, resulting in suppresing neuronal activity of receptor cell. Here one of the key features of brain comes into play, that is adaptation. Adaptation in the same system, i.e. homologous adaptation results with repeated exposure to alcohol, and thus a tolerance is developed, GABA receptors become less responsive to GABA and higher alcohol concentrations are required to achieve the same level of suppression. Upon withdrawl of alcohol, GABA receptors still remain less responsive and hence resulting in an imbalance in favor of excitatory NT. The situation is further aggravated by the enhanced activity of excitatory NT glutamate, the receptors for which remain elevated even after withdrawl of alcohol. Both these effects have the cumulative effect of hyperexcitability, which leads to craving for alcohol and withdrawl symptoms. Added to this is the hetrologous adaptation of brain, i.e the homeostatic response in one system as result of changes in another system. It is very difficult to discern these changes more so because they are not mutually exclusive. And therefore doubts arise as to which one of these neurochemical pathway is actually responsible for

Business Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Organisations - Essay Example The classical school of organisation and management thought was mainly focussed on the overall development of organisations. It comprises of three theories of management, i.e. the ‘Scientific Management Theory’, the ‘Bureaucracy Theory’ and the ‘Administrative Management Theory’. The ‘Scientific Management Theory’ is based on well developed, specifically defined and definite principles of management. Such theories are often observed to assist the effectiveness of management in the organizations in its current status and in future as well (Agarwal, 1983). In the scientific management theory, managers are responsible for enhancing the productivity of the organisation. This theory was introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is regarded as the â€Å"Father of Scientific Management†. This theory was mainly concerned with its implication in the American Economy when it faced limited competitive productivity along with GNP growt h. Subsequently, four principles of â€Å"Scientific Management† were developed by Taylor. ... l strengthen the employer-employee relationship All of these four principles significantly support the managers to resolve problems related to the productivity of the organisation. With its virtues, these principles became extremely popular in the organisations of America which later influenced the business sector of Europe as well (Hartman, n.d). The â€Å"Bureaucratic Theory† was put forward by Max Weber which largely influenced the management philosophy of organisations in the 20th century with its emphasis on the organisational structure (Agarwal, 1983). According to the assumptions of the theory, the higher level authority would control and supervise the lower level in the hierarchy; the employees in the organisation must have requisite skill to be expertise in a definite task as per the ‘division of labour’. Moreover, the ‘rules and regulations’ in the organisation must be in a standard manner in order to facilitate coordination. There must also be ‘impersonal relationship to be existed in between managers and employees’ so as to develop logical decision making process in the organisation. The competency level needs to be high as this would facilitate to remove biasness while hiring in addition to promoting the employees. It is essentials for an organisation to maintain the complete records of the entire activities in the organisation (Hartman, n.d). The â€Å"Administrative Theory† was proposed by Henri Fayol. This theory was later recognised as Management Process School as it entails that management is a continuous process that can be evaluated by its functions. Because of the fact that the theory considers almost every aspect of management, it was able to gain relevance in all levels of management and in different types of organisations (Agarwal,

The class is American Art and Architecture. Topic is the american Term Paper

The class is American Art and Architecture. Topic is the american artist John Singleton Copley - Term Paper Example He was one of the most successful artists in colonial America who was widely renowned for his portrait paintings and he was believed to be the master of great pieces of American history of arts. He was one of the finest portraitists in American history. His capacity of demonstrating the fantasies of people and objects in contrast with various combinations of light and dark enabled him to be recognized for a long time by the art historians. The parents of Copley were said to be poor and uncultured and he was the stepson of the artist Peter Pelham. By the time in 1760, although being difficult circumstances in life, Copley managed to gain the position of a supreme artist. And then in 1774, he left Boston and went to London, where he familiarize his style of painting with the British painterly approach and that was the time when he diversified his focus of the paintings from portraits to history paintings which enabled him in gaining global appreciation. Many people argue that Copley was not formerly trained under any professional artist, but this is not the reality. In the difficult times of his youth, Copley had to spend 3 years with his stepfather, Peter Pelham and there he got the chance to study and learn the drawing patterns, printmaking and the art of painting portraits. Not only his stepfather, but Copley also had witnessed the artistry works two English artists, John Smibert (1688 – 1751) and Joseph Blackburn (1752 – 1777). Copley had learned a lot from the copies of various old master paintings that were drawn by Simbert. The early work of Copley was mainly influenced by by  Joseph Badger (1707/8–1765), Robert Feke (about 1708–1751), and John Greenwood (1729–1792). Not only them, but his early works also reveal that they were influenced by Simbert and Blackburn. For instance, his painting of Joseph Mann which he painted in 1754 was influenced by the early works of Feke and Greenwood. He

Writing assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Writing assignment - Essay Example e offensive, its linguistic origin indicates that it is not fundamentally belligerent but merely a term used to describe a unique group of people who principally hunted for sustenance and still leading an aboriginal way of life. Eskimo language encompass a parlance continuum and is divided into two branches; Aleut and Eskimo. The Aleut dialect encompasses Pribilof, Unalaskan, Atkan, Unangan, Berring and Attuan while the eskimo dialect encompasses Inuit, Yuit and Yupik. Although our population has been fluctuating overtime due to climatic and technological changes, it currently lies at approximately 57,152, a figure that is higher as compared to other traditional hunting and gathering societies. We are very different from Indian Americans and cannot simply be designated ‘Indians transformed’ (Vakhtin, 1998). However, they are meticulously correlated with the Mongolian people from eastern Asia. Hunting was the main activity that provided sustenance to the Eskimo. However, the animals hunted varied significantly depending on the location of the group and the prevalent seasons; the animals include whales, caribou, fish, walrus, fox, birds, Dall sheep, polar and fractious bears. Hunters, especially whale hunters, subsisted in dome shaped ice cabins and dressed in hefty fur clothing (Kaplan, 1990). The hunters captured huge bowhead whales that could provide numerous tons of meat; meat that was stored in hovels in the frozen ground. Both men and women were involved in hunting for food and kept on constantly migrating following the movements of their prey. The apposite time to end a term’s whaling was agreed upon by captains of the crews, each crew consisted of 6 paddlers, a harpooners and a captain, a factor that bolstered cooperation and coordination and forestalled instances of hunger. When a whale was spotted, 4-8 hunters used umiak (a skin-covered open boat) to ventu re onto the water and capture the animal. Hunting was perceived to be an important strategy of

Accounting Theory and Development Essay Example for Free

Accounting Theory and Development Essay The methodology is often be â€Å"going from the general to the specific† as the research must develop a logical structure for accomplishing the objective then, which based on the definition and assumptions. The validity of any theory developed through this process is highly dependent upon the ability of the researcher to correctly identify and relate the various components of the accounting process in a logical manner. Induction is a method of reasoning by which a general law or principle is inferred from observed particular instances. Inductive approach emphasis making observations and drawing conclusions from it and is often be â€Å" going from specific to general, because the research generalizes about the universe on the basis of limited observations of specific situations. The inductivist is to draw theoretical and abstract conclusion from rationalizations of accounting practice. Applied to the accounting, the inductive approach begins with observations about the financial information of business enterprises and proceeds to construct generalizations and principles of accounting from those observations on the basis of recurring relationship. Reading 1. 2 Accounting theory and development Accounting Theory Construction with Inductive and deductive approach Normative theory vs. Positive theory Normative theory attempts to justify what ought to be, rather than what is. The major criticism of normative theories is that they are based on value judgments. Positive (Descriptive) theories attempt to find relationships that actually exist. Deductive systems are normative and inductive systems attempt to be descriptive. The deductive method is basically a closed, non-empirical system. Theory verification Theory verification or validation is an integral part of theory construction. According to Popper, the testing of deductive theories could be carried out along four lines. There is the testing of the theory by way of empirical applications of conclusion, which can be derived from. This step is necessary to determine how the theory stands up to the demand of practice. If its predictions are acceptable, the theory is said to be verified otherwise, the theory is said to be falsified. Aspects of theories, their construction and verification Figure 2 Distinguishing features

Wall Construction Of Single Storey Residential Buildings Construction Essay

Wall Construction Of Single Storey Residential Buildings Construction Essay This finding is to determined the different types of wall having its own uses for certain factors. Wall construction contains of various types of method used , it maybe not straightforward as one using one of the more common construction methods. Walls is constructed in many different form and of various materials to achieve several functions. There are many different types of wall with its own functions ; exterior walls and interior walls or either load-bearing wall and non-load-bearing wall. Walls are often included doors and windows , which are exists for controlled passage of environmental factors and peoples through the wall line. There are many types of materials can be used for wall construction, for example stone, rock, wood, clay, cement, brick, thatch and glass. Different type of wall needed different material to achieve its main supporting function , and also others reason as well. LIST OF FIGURE, TABLE AND ABBREVIATIONS : List of figure download (1).jpg Brick Brick is a single block which is very commonly used in construction material. It is made up by the clay. Many pieces of bricks will make up a wall, aggregate57.jpg Aggregates Aggregate is a composite material that normally used in the construction material. It is also used to become mortal with the combination of cement and fine sand. download.jpg Cavity wall Cavity wall is a wall that consists of one layer of insulation between the brick outer leaf and the brick inner leaf. The main function of this wall is that it provides insulation that prevent heat losses. It is very suitable for the country which has 4 seasons like United Kingdom. brick wall.jpg Brick wall Brick wall is the wall that made up by the brick and mortal. Its main function is that it provide a layer of protection which separate the outside area and inside area of the houses. This wall is normally can see in our country. running_bond.jpg Running Bond It is also named as stretcher bond which is the most popular bonding in Malaysia. The style is referred to as running, create a straight line between the brick. One of the benefit is this bond is that there is no need to use header bricks. The structure is usually connected with wall ties and understood to be a cavity wall  bond. CHAPTER 1.0 : Introduction BCEC1104 Material and Construction course ask us to do some overview of material and construction for building structures and elements. Their objectives or aims are to gain knowledge on construction of building structures and elements theoretically as well as attain practically. It also to gain a better understanding on justifications of usage different materials and to be able to link and integrate with all disciplines, fields and related requirements of construction engineering with regard to buildings. Besides, there are many study benefit that we gain through completing this assignment. That is because we are asking to prepare an item as follows for single storey residential buildings. As our case studies is a single storey residential building, so we just focus on the elements of that buildings. Due to the requirement of completing this assignment, we now know and well known all about wall. For example, we know what the common types of wall used in Malaysia. We can differentiate what the common types of wall used in Malaysia and other country. Because, one of the design factors of walls construction is based on the weather. Basically, each country has different types of weather. Besides, we also know the types of materials used and the design factors of wall construction. In addition, through this assignment, we are well known about the walls construction method according to materials used. The best moment is when we are asking to make a scale model of single storey residential b uildings. It makes us easier to gain our understanding about common types of walls, its elements and the materials used because they want us construct a scale model that exactly showing the construction of these three requirements. CHAPTER 2.0 : Building Biodata Our case studies is a single storey residential buildings at Lot 320, Kg Serdang Permai, 31300, Kg Kepayang, Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan and it was a hometown of one of our group members which is Nur Dania Azira Binti Azizul. This residential building plan has been designed and drawn by Mah Kwai Kuen on 13th January in 1987. He certify that the plans are submitted in accordance with the street, drainage and building act 1974 and uniform building by law (UBBL) 1984 and accept full responsibilities accordingly. Mah Kwai Kuen is a building draftsman that registered with Architects Malaysia Board. This residential building has been approved by Yang Di Pertua Majlis Daerah Kinta Barat Batu Gajah on 30th April in 1982. It is a single storey residential building at No P.T. 320, Mukim Sungei Raya, Daerah Kinta. The owner of that residential building is Mr Mohamed Shafie Bin Ismail which lived at No 608, J.K.R. Quarter, 31800, Kampar before the construction. The chronological development has been stated in the plans given by Mr Shafie. Firstly, all brick wall to be in cement mortar 1:3 and reinforcement concrete to be in 1:2:4 mix. Secondly, glazed pipe have to be jointed with cement. Thus, joints in cast iron pipes must be made with molten lead over a gasket of packed yarn and men holes and inspection chamber should be grease sealed. Next, the inspection chambers must be bended render and corner rounded off. After that, the ends off tipper must be supported on bearing fixed, brass fixed with oiling cups. At the same time, all inverts of manholes and inspection chamber are must be built S.W.G. half round channel and all manholes inspections covers and frames must be in standard municipal type. Mosquito proof conv. covers to inlet and outlet tee pipe should be provided while all sanitary appliances pump and mortars should be of the approved types by the council. But before commencement of works the sources of supply of C.I and S.G.W, pipe must be submitted to the council together with simple of these pipes for approval. All pipes must be of an approved brand and made complying relevant British standard specifications and manufactures by the approved manufactures. In addition, elect mortar pump must be provided with auto float switch and all M.H covers must be 18 ÃÆ'- 24 iron grease sealed typs. Lastly, all sanitary appliances shall be provided with proper trap. CHAPTER 3.0 : Building Elemental Construction F:DCIM102AZMIRbuilding element drawings.jpg Figure 1.1 Show the wall construction drawings of case studies. F:DCIM102AZMIRdetails drawings.jpg Figure 1.2 Show the wall construction details drawings of case studies. Building Element Construction Process Explanations Elaborations As we know, wall is the structures constructed to enclose and area, to support floors and roof or divide the floor area of a building into a required number of rooms. Building construction process is activities done on construction site. Building construction process usually started with site clearance, earthworks, setting out, substructure, superstructure, finishes, services, external work and lastly is completion. However, site activities are different according to site location and topography and also the type of building. Building construction process can be divides into five parts. The first part is site preparation. While doing the site preparation, usually they will do some clearance, earthworks, site marking, hoarding, dewatering, temporary building and also temporary road. Thus, the second part is sub structure. While doing the sub structure process, they usually will do the piles, foundation, ground floor slab, ground beam and column stump. Next, the third part is super structure. While doing the super structures process, they will make a frame, upper floor slab, walls, roof, doors windows, finishes and utilities. Then, the fourth part is services. While doing the services process, they usually do the process of sanitary, cold water supply, air conditioner and also fire fighting. Lastly, the last part is external works. While doing the external works, they will do the roads, car park, drainage, fencing, truing and landscape. Based on everything mentioned above, the element which is wall is an element that made in the third part of construction process. The third part of construction process is super structure. This is means that wall is an element in super structure process. The construction process of each wall is different according to the types of wall itself. For solid bricks wall, it is made from clay or sand plus lime. Each bricks will be arranged in a wall or column. It is called as bonding. The purpose of bonding is to obtain maximum strength, ensure the lateral stability and to be an acceptable appearance. There are many types of brick bonding. Take for examples are English bonding and Flemish bonding. Solid wall of brick or block work usually has an inside finish of plaster. The external face is often rendered or painted to prevent rain and moisture penetration. Another type of wall is solid blocks wall. It has no specific size but more than bricks size. It is made from pre-cast concrete and it is suitable for external walls. For cavity walls, it is a better thermal insulation and weather resistance. It is been constructed by two leaves of a cavity wall are tied together with wall ties. The outer leaf normally is brick. While the inner leaf of brick or block work, usually with a plastered finish. The partial cavity is fill insulation. Some walls may have no insulation or may be fully filled. Thus, for parapet wall, it is a low wall projecting above the level of a roof, bridge or balcony. It is used to form a guard or barrier at the edge. Other than these is curtain walling. For this type of wall, it is lightweight non loading bearing. In the low rise buildings, it is use timber or patent glazing. However, in the high rise buildings, it is use steel or aluminium alloy. The last one is retaining walls. It is act as an earth retaining structure . CHAPTER 4.0 : Wall are designed and constructed in many different form and of various materials to achieve several functions. There are many different types of wall with its own functions ; exterior walls and interior walls or either load-bearing wall and non-load-bearing wall. Walls are often included doors and windows , which are exists for controlled passage of environmental factors and peoples through the wall line. Nowadays, modern building wall including bearing and curtain wall as a combination of both in response to the construct the needs of buildings as a whole. Both types may appear similar when complete but their sequences of construction usually not. Exterior walls used to protect the building from external environment and accidental factors or effects such as climate changes , fires , ultraviolet radiation , bacteria and virus , dust and sound , by considering the desirable interior environmental conditions. These walls are usually a load-bearing walls and always constructed to be tough and strong enough to resist the horizontal and vertical forces impose upon them safely , which is as defined by building codes. A load-bearing wall not only supports its own weight within a building , but also supports weights of other parts of the construction which is usually placed at the strategic points within the structure in order to supports a ceiling , roof or the others building elements , for example like floor joists or ceiling beams which many types of buildings make use of those 2 elements to produce a large degree of strength to the spaces , it willl considered to be not enough for any building that occupies an appreciate amount of space. So , a load-bearing wall is gauged to appropriate thickness to carry the weight above them , if not its possible that an outer wall couild become unstable state. If the load exceeds the strength of material used , potentially causing to collapse of the structure of building. Even a small space of not more than thousands square feet will be largely enhanced by the existence of a bearing wall to help to support a stable roofline and augment to the stability supported by joists and rafters. If without a bearing wall , the structure is likely to collapse or weaken at a speed up rate. Ceiling beams and rafters will slowly weakens from the raised stress , leading to a weakened ceiling and roof that is less likely to resist to strong blowing winds or storms. In the case of a doubled storey building , without the exist of bearing wall placed on the first floor will almost guaranteed that the flooring for the second storey will be weaken eventually and very fast. Therefore , exterior walls normally construct with concrete , block or brick to provide a stronger grip betweeen the structures of building. The alterations of a load-bearing wall can be made is also limited , it may required the placement of temporary supports for certain types of remodelling those construction or renovation projects. A bearing wall does not must have to be a solid expanse of wall. Walls of this type can include doors and others openings such as windows and vents. Additional framing built to it. When renovate or reconstruct the interior home or other building, its necessary to identify the supporting wall of the building. If at all possible, movement of walls should be restricted to any part that determined to be non-bearing wall. If the new renovation or construction does call for removing a bearing, caution steps should be taken to shove up the structure until a newly placed bearing wall is put into a place and support system for the structure is restored to full efficiency. In hous ing, most common used in light construction method known as platform framing and each load-bearing wall lies on a wall sill plate which is match to the lowest base plate. The sills are connected and assemble to the masonry or concrete foundation. On the other hand, interior walls normally used to separate rooms in a house or building. Interior walls usually are not load-bearing walls. This type of walls are support only themselves , it might run perpendicular to the floor and ceiling joists , it will not be aligned upon support beams , for example partition walls is a type of non-load bearing interior walls. A non-load bearing wall can be altered or even removed completely without weakening the structure of the building. Most of the material used for the elements of interior building have to be safe, and should be compatible with the lighting schemes which can produce a comfort and harmless environment for occupancy. Besides that, the ways to construct and the type of materials used for interior construction or renovation should be easy to maintain well and keep it from clean. Interior walls commonly may construct with blocks or bricks from clay , reinforced or hollow, terra-cotta or concrete, sometimes glass blocks may also be used for certain visual purposes. Other than that, timber is also been used for partition walls which consists of wooden framework either supported on the floor side walls or below. Bearing wall construction may be masonry wall, cast-in place wall or precast reinforced concrete wall, stud and sheathing wall and composite types wall. Bearing wall must be erected before supported building component above can be built. Meanwhile, curtain wall including lighter versions of those used for bearing walls. These walls also comprise the combination of ceramic-coated metal panels, glass panels, or corrugated metal sheets, each laterally supported by light sub framing members. Since it receives vertical support by spandrel beams, or relieving angles, at the wall line, the curtain wall can be built after the building frame is completed. Among these types of walls , the commonly wall used in our buildings is masonry wall , reinforced concrete wall , stud and sheathing wall , prefabricated wall , glass , metal or ceramic-coated metal panel wall and tilt-up wall. Masonry walls is one of the traditional type and now commonly used in most wall construction of buildings. It is kind of durable form of wall construction that normally used in both bearing and curtain walls. It is designed in conformity with building codes and is constructed by individual placement of blocks of stone, bricks, cinder concrete, cut stone, or combinations of these materials. These units are held together by putting a mortar between them, this can helps to provide high performance enclosures, which fulfil support, control and finish functions. Load-bearing walls, infill walls, and partition walls are physical barriers that help to provide privacy, security and fire and sound separation from external environment. When it is the section or part of the building envelope, masonry walls also act as a durable support for barrier and cladding, elements and maybe useful to provide the cladding as well. Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used materials for wall construction in modern buildings. It is made from artificial stone obtained by mixing of cement, sand and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be compressed into almost any shape, leaving an inherent advantage over other materials. However, its restricted tension resistance is initially prevented its widely use in building construction. To solve the problem of poor tensile strength, steel bars are lodged solidly in concrete to form a composite material called reinforced concrete (RC). Except for the combination of cement and steel, the production of concrete does not needed expensive manufacturing mills. Basically, reinforced concrete walls are used for enhancing strength purposes. Some walls may be in place or pre-cast, such as bearing or curtain walls. Some pre-cast concrete walls are constructed are commonly used for floor or rood deck construction. They can be located vertically, side by side, and caulked at adjacent edges. Stud and sheathing walls are a light type of wall construction which is normally used in residential houses or other light constructions where they are usually act as light bearing walls. It is usually consists of wood and sheathing nailed to wood or steel studs. This is always sheetrock which is a sandwich of gypsum between cardboard facings. Sheetrock, so called a wallboard or gypsum board is a panel of gypsum covered on both side with papers and used as the primary wall materials in building construction. Wall sheathing is often using plywood or other laminate and always applied to the framing prior to erection, relieve the positioning of studs and raise the speed and cutting workforce needs and expenses. Some type of exterior sheathing is such as asphalt-impregnated fibreboard, plywood, oriented strand board and wafer board, which will provide required to resist lateral loads and make sure the wall square, where rigid glass-fibre, asphalt-coated fibreboard, polystyrene or polyure thane will not do so. In case, the wall should be reinforced with a diagonal wood or meal bracing infix into the studs. Composite walls are a more vital substantial type of stud walls, they are constructed of cementations materials such as pre-cast concrete and weatherproof sheetrock as an external sheathing, and sheetrock as an internal finishes. With subject to strong wind storms local codes or state law will finally require both the wind braces and the stiff exterior sheathing regardless to the type and the kind of outer weather resistant coverings. Prefabricated wall is also a type of commonly used for curtain wall construction; its frequently known as prefab wall. Prefab wall usually made of corrugated steel or aluminium sheets, although they sometimes are constructed of fibber- reinforced plastic sheets, attached to light horizontal bearing a known grits, spaced several feet apart. These type of wall are usually made of sandwich construction which the outside part can be corru gated sheet, an inside part may be liner or flat or corrugated sheet, and an enclosed insulation are attached together by screws and to form a thin, effective sandwich wall. These walls often have tongue-and-groove vertical edges to allow sealed joints when the united are built at the building sites by being attached to framing grits. Glass-coated, metal-coated or ceramic-coated metal panel wall often used in high-rise construction are now commonly used in curtain walls. These walls are typically gathered as a sandwich by using glass , formed metal , or ceramic-coated metal sheets on external side , and some form of liner , including possible masonry ; on the inner side , insulation on enclosed. Tilt-up walls are usually non-load bearing wall, which is constructed as in thinner versions of some of standard wall types, and they are often constructed for some resistance to fire and sound. These walls are sometimes used for construction efficiency. It is a wall that constructed in a ho rizontal position at ground level, and it is then tilted up and connects at its adages to adjacent tilt-up wall sections. The internal partition is a lighter form of wall used for making separations of the interior areas in the buildings. There are many types of materials can be used for wall construction, for example stone, rock, wood, clay, cement, brick, thatch and glass. The stone can be used as the wall material because it is attractive, durable, low maintenance, strong, and high thermal mass. The stone can divided into many types and can be divide into two categories which is hard stone and soft stone. The example of the hard stone is granite stone and the examples for the soft stone are limestone and sandstone. The stone wall are very strong and can last for over hundreds years and still maintain in a very good condition but it depend on the types of the stone used in the wall construction. Since the stone is available in every part of the earth therefore its cost is much more cheaper than other wall construction materials. Besides that, the stone wall have a high thermal mass which can slowed down the heat transfer from the outdoor get into inside the houses and also can prevent the heat loss from the indoor to the outdoor. In the other words, the stone wall can regulated the inside the room temperature. Not only this, the stone wall also very ea sy to maintain. What we need to do is just to check the mortar in between the stone wall is in good condition, if crumbling is happen we need to do repair or replace the mortar. Besides that, we need to clear the surface of the stone wall so that can keep it clear but by the way it may reduce the life span of the stone wall. Wood also is commonly been used for wall construction. Wood are been used for construction at many of the countries although the climate and soil condition are difference in all countries. This is because wood are flexible and resistant against climate harshness. Therefore wood was highly recommended use for construction but we must take into account the wood quality and the condition it grown up.Clay is also one of the most common types of the material used to build houses. For example, the houses in country sides mostly are made from clay and mud. The reason is because clay has the ability to keep the house warn during cool weather and can keep the house cool during hot summer, which mean that the clay has high thermal mass.Cement is been used in almost every countries. Cement is used to join brick or stone together. When cement is mixed with water it can be used to sick the brick together and when it is dried, it will become very hard and difficult to remove these brick apart.That ch is not very common been used in Malaysia but it is commonly be used for building material in Africa. This is because the thatch is made from a grass which is easy to hardest and it is a natural insulator.Nowadays, glass also been used in wall construction. In modern structures, the glass is used for outer beauty of the structure.Besides that, using the glass as wall can allowed more visible light to get into the houses and the amount of light entry into the house is depend on the refraction index of the glass. Although the glass can allow the visible light to come into the house but at the same time it also can block or eliminated the heat energy to transfer into the houses. Brick also is one of the most common materials used in wall construction because it was available in everywhere. In different countries will have different type of brick where are different in size, colour and material used. In our case study, the walls are made from brick. Nowadays, brick are made by pressing clay into a block and firing them in kiln. At the past time, the brick are not be fried but the brick are just putted outdoor and dried by the sun. Since the Middle Ages, the brick is been widely used as the building material in many of the countries.A good brick are very durable and can resistant to atmospheric action and high temperature. Therefore brick also can be used for fire wall construction. This is the reason why a lot of the old building or wooden houses are replaced or rebuilt in brick. Brick become even more important during the Industrial Revolution.How the brick was made? The brick is made by clay. After the clay has been dug out for soil, it will mixed with water and make into the wanted shape. After that, these are allowed to dried slowly before there are fired in kiln at temperature of 1000C 1200C. At this temperature, the clay is undergoes the metamorphosed proses. When the wate r is totally driven off, a new anhydrous mineral namely as aluminosilicates are formed with is broken down from the mineral name as Kuolinite. Aluminosilicates is more stable at high temperature. Besides that, minerals like mullite crystals, quartz and supercooledliquied in the brick are making the brick become harder and stronger. Why the brick are red in colour? This is because clay was contains the iron minerals. At the beginning the iron exist as ferrous iron ( iron II) but after undergo firing the iron in clay are oxidised to become iron III which form red-brown iron oxide haematite. We mostly use bricks to construct the wall because I have many advantages and only a few disadvantages to use it to construct the wall. The advantages are attractive, durable, low maintenance and it have high thermal mass. The disadvantage is the time to build or to install is slow as compare to other wall materials. The brick used in wall construction can be divided into two types which are solid brick and veneer brick. The solid brick are more common been used in house wall construction because it have high thermal mass so that it is good in slow down the heat transmission and can regulate the temperature in the houses although it is more expensive as compare to veneer brick. The brick wall not only good in heat insulation but also good in insulate the sound. The brick wall can block most of the unwanted noise from outside such as traffic noise getting into the house. Besides that, the brick also used as fire wall since the brick are not easy burn material. If the fire accident is happen it may take a least 8 hours to let the fire to spread to the other house. Used brick to construct a wall is very attractive also, this is because the brick itself already have it own colour, so that we no need to paint it after we built it. Other than that, the brick is been used because it is easy to maintain and it can stay in a good condition for a very period. The brick wall would not get rot or dent so that we no need paint the wall within a short period. In our group, we are going to discuss the topic entitle WALL. Wall is a basic unit that needed to build up a building or houses. So it is a very important compartment. However, its design factors may affect its function. In the below contents are the different design factors of the wall. First of all, wall construction can be classified into two types that are external wall and interior wall. There are a lot of wall type in the world, while our group only discuss two types of wall that are normal brick wall which can normally be found in our country, Malaysia. Another type of wall that we are going to discuss is the cavity wall which can normally be found in the country that have four seasons such as United Kingdom, United State, Portland and etc. This normal brick wall that found in our country can be divided into two types that are one brick wall and half brick wall which its thickness is 90mm. These walls are made up by the cement, sand, and aggregate in the mixture of the ratio in 1:2:4 which is 1 portion of cement, 2 portions of sand and 4 portions of aggregates. While the cavity walls consist of a half brick or block outer leaf, a brick or 90 mm /100mm lightweight load bearing concrete block or stud framed structure inner leaf, a 50 mm or 75mm cavity or air space in between the outer and inner leaf. The design factors of the normal brick wall and the cavity wall are almost the same. The main design factor of these walls is that they provide sufficient strength and stability to resist the loading imposed on it. The loadings which the wall need to withstand included dead load and live load. The example of dead load is the furniture and etc while the example of live load is rain, snow, occupants and etc. Another design factor of the walls is that it acts as an envelope that differentiates the outdoor and indoor area. It is also a shelter that can resist the unpredictable climate change for example rain, snow to enter the interior area of the houses. Besides, wall also plays an important role to resist the transmission of sound which will eventually causes the pollution. So, the wall acts as a barrier to resist the entering of the unwanted sound to the houses. Nowadays, owing to the fast development of the country, there is a lot of pollution happened in our surrounding especially air pollution. To minimize the contact of the occupants to these pollution, wall plays an important role which act as a barrier to prevent the outside contaminant to enter the houses such as dust, pollen, hazardous particle and etc. These contaminated particles will cause the indoor air quality in a bad condition and thus will influence the indoor environment quality and hence some diseases may occur because of this poor condition for example asthma. So, with the presence of the wall, these problems can be solved and a good quality of the indoor air can be achieved. Besides, wall also acts as a barrier to resist the fire which is call the fire brick wall. In order to slow down the rate of flame spread in case of fire within the building, the architects apply various techniques including the creation of compartments which would contain the fire for some time before spreading to other parts of the building. So, to achieve this, one method to use is to take the block walls between rooms up to the underside of the roof, for instance and depending on the quality of the aggregates used. These brick wall may have a Fire Resistance Rating of up to one and half hours (100mm thick solid brick wall). Walls are probably the most noticeable and important part of the interior wall and also the exterior wall. Another meaning is that it provides an appearance. When entering into the room, people will notices the colour, kind and the surface of the wall and hence, they will determine the psycho physiological atmosphere. So the function of walls is that to create space where a person feels comfortable. Besides, the good appearance of wall is a wall with no crack which the infiltration will not happen. Without infiltration, there will be no extra air to flow into the building, so the extra heat flow will not enter or leave the building, indirectly, the thermal comfort can achieve. The design factors of brick wall and the cavity wall are almost the same. However,